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Zydeco
Stylistic origins
Cultural origins	Early 20th century, Louisiana, United States
Typical instruments
Fusion genres
Swamp pop

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Zydeco (/ˈzaɪdɪˌkoʊ/ZY-dih-koh or /ˈzaɪdiˌkoʊ/ZY-dee-koh, French: Zarico) is a music genre that evolved in southwest Louisiana by French Creole speakers^[1] which blends blues, rhythm and blues, and music indigenous to the Louisiana Creoles and the Native people of Louisiana. Though distinct in origin from the Cajun music of Louisiana, the two forms influenced each other, forming a complex of genres native to Louisiana.

Origin of term[edit]

The origin of the word 'zydeco' is uncertain. One theory is that it derives from the French phrase Les haricots ne sont pas salés, which, when spoken in the Louisiana Creole French, sounds as [lez‿a.ɾi.ko nə sɔ̃ pa saˈle]. This literally translates as 'the snap beans aren't salty' but idiomatically as 'times are hard'^[2] signifying the speaker's fatigue or lack of energy.^[3] The earliest recorded use of the term may have been the country and western musical group called Zydeco Skillet Lickers who recorded the song 'It Ain't Gonna Rain No Mo' in 1929.^[4]

Initially, several different spellings of the word existed, including 'zarico' and 'zodico' (in some dialects of French, r has the same pronunciation used by certain dialects of American English for specific instances of d). In 1960, musicologistRobert 'Mack' McCormick wrote liner notes for a compilation album, A Treasury of Field Recordings, and used the spelling 'zydeco'. The word was used in reviews, and McCormick began publicizing it around Houston as a standard spelling. Its use was also accepted by musician Clifton Chenier – who had previously recorded 'Zodico Stomp' in 1955 – in his recording 'Zydeco Sont Pas Salés', after which Chenier himself claimed credit for devising the word.^[5]

Create original music, or arrange the music of others, using appropriate technology. Crossroads: The Multicultural Roots of America's Popular Music with Audio CD (2nd Edition). Multicultural Music in America: An Introduction to Our Musical Heritage.

THE ISSUE OF CULTURAL IDENTITY IN KHALED HOSSEINI™S THE KITE RUNNER Arranged By: NINA FARLINA NIM. 02 ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY ﬁSYARIF HIDAYATULLAHﬂ JAKARTA 2008 id2351130 pdfMachine by Broadgun Software - a great PDF writer! Structural and cultural roots of the movement and with the consequences of Temperance activities and goals for its adherents, its 'victims,' and the relations between these two. The sociologist picks up where the historian closes. Put in another way, he delves into the assumptions with which the historian begins.

In an alternative theory the term derives from the Atakapa people, whose enslaved women were well known for forming marital unions with male African slaves in the early 1700s.^{[citation needed]} The Atakapa word for 'dance' is 'shi' (rhymes with 'sky') and their word for 'the youths' is 'ishol'. In 1528 Spanish people, the first Europeans to contact the Atakapa, translated 'shi ishol' as 'zy ikol'. Four hundred years later, the mixed-blood descendants of Atakapas and Africans would still sway in synchrony to their raucous music, but with a slightly evolved name: zydeco.

Another possible root word for zydeco is as a West African term for 'musicking'. Recent studies based on early Louisiana recordings made by Alan and John Lomax suggests that the term, as well as the tradition, may have African origins. The languages of West African tribes affected by the slave trade provide some clues as to the origins of zydeco. In at least a dozen languages from this culture-area of Africa, the phonemes 'za,' 're,' and 'go' are frequently associated with dancing and/or playing music'.^[6]^[7]

Musical style[edit]

Usually fast tempo and dominated by the button or piano accordion and a form of a washboard known as a 'rub-board,' 'scrub-board,' 'wash-board,' or frottoir, zydeco music was originally created at house dances, where families and friends gathered for socializing.

As a result, the music integrated waltz, shuffles, two-steps, blues, rock and roll, and other dance music forms of the era. Today, zydeco integrates genres such as R&B, soul, brass band, reggae, hip hop, ska, rock, Afro-Caribbean and other styles, in addition to the traditional forms.

Early history[edit]

Early Creole musicians playing an accordion and a washboard in front of a store, near Opelousas, Louisiana (1938). Zydeco music originated from Creole music — today's rubboard or frottoir ('rubbing the washboard') is a stylized version of the early washboard.

The original French settlers came to Louisiana in the late 1600s, sent by the Regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, to help settle the Louisiana Territory. Arriving in New Orleans on seven ships, the settlers quickly moved into the bayous and swamps. There the French culture permeated those of the Irish, Spanish, Native Indian and German peoples already populating the area.^[8]

For 150 years, Louisiana Creoles enjoyed an insular lifestyle, prospering, educating themselves without the government and building their invisible communities under the Code Noir. The French created the Code Noir in 1724 to establish rules for treatment of slaves, as well as restrictions and rights for gens de couleur libres, a growing class of free people of color. They had the right to own land, something few blacks in the American South had at that time.

The disruption of the Louisiana Creole community began when the United States made the Louisiana Purchase and Americans started settling in the state. The new settlers typically recognized only the system of race that prevailed where they came from. When the Civil War ended and the black slaves were freed, Louisiana Creoles often assumed positions of leadership. However, segregationist Democrats in Louisiana classified Creoles with freedmen and by the end of the 19th century had disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites under rules designed to suppress black voting (though federal law said all black men had the vote from 1870). Creoles continued to press for education and advancement while negotiating the new society.

Zydeco's rural beginnings and the prevailing economic conditions at its inception are reflected in the song titles, lyrics, and bluesy vocals. The music arose as a synthesis of traditional Creole music, some Cajun music influences, and African-American traditions, including R&B, blues, jazz, and gospel. It was also often just called French music or le musique Creole known as 'la-la.' Amédé Ardoin made the first recordings of Creole music in 1928. This Creole music served as a foundation for what later became known as zydeco. Sometimes the music was performed in the Catholic Church community centers, as Creoles were mostly Catholic. Later it moved to rural dance halls and nightclubs.

During World War II with the Great Migration, many French-speaking and Louisiana Creole speaking Créoles from the area around Marksville and Opelousas, Louisiana left a poor and prejudiced state for better economic opportunities in Texas. Even more southern blacks migrated to California, where buildup of defense industries provided good jobs without the restrictions of the segregated South. In California blacks from Louisiana could vote and began to participate in political life. Today, there are many Cajun and zydeco festivals throughout the US.

Post-war history[edit]

Chenier Brothers performing at Jay's Lounge and Cockpit, Cankton, Louisiana, Mardi Gras, 1975

Zydeco music pioneer Clifton Chenier, 'The King of Zydeco,' made zydeco popular on regional radio stations with his bluesy style and keyboard accordion. In the mid-1950s, Chenier's popularity brought zydeco to the fringes of the American mainstream. He signed with Specialty Records, the same label that first recorded Little Richard and Sam Cooke for wide audiences. Chenier, considered the architect of contemporary zydeco, became the music's first major star, with early hits like 'Les Haricots Sont Pas Salés' ('The Snap Beans Ain't Salty' — a reference to the singer being too poor to afford salt pork to season the beans).

In the mid-1980s, Rockin' Sidney brought international attention to zydeco music with his hit tune 'My Toot Toot'. Clifton Chenier, Rockin' Sidney and Queen Ida all garnered Grammy awards during this pivotal period, opening the door to emerging artists who would continue the traditions. Ida is the only living Grammy award winner in the genre. Rockin' Dopsie recorded with Paul Simon and also signed a major label deal during this time.

John Delafose was extremely popular regionally. The music made major advances when emerging bands burst exuberantly onto the national scene, fusing new sounds and styles with the music. Boozoo Chavis, Roy Carrier, Zydeco Force, Nathan and the Zydeco Cha Chas, the Sam Brothers, Terrance Simien, Chubby Carrier, and many others were breathing new life into the music. Zydeco superstar Buckwheat Zydeco was already well into his career, and also signed his deal with Island Records in the mid-1980s. Combined with the national popularity of Creole and Cajun food, and the feature film The Big Easy, set in New Orleans, zydeco music had a revival. New artists were cultivated and the music took a more innovative direction and enjoyed increased mainstream popularity.

C. J. Chenier performing in the Ross Bandstand

Young zydeco musicians such as C. J. Chenier (son of Clifton Chenier), Chubby Carrier, Geno Delafose, Terrance Simien, Nathan Williams and others began touring internationally during the 1980s. Beau Jocque was a monumental songwriter and innovator who infused zydeco with powerful beats and bass lines in the 90s, adding striking production and elements of funk, hip-hop and rap. Young performers like Chris Ardoin, Keith Frank, and Zydeco Force added further by tying the sound to the bass drum rhythm to accentuate or syncopate the backbeat even more. This style is sometimes called 'double clutching.'

Hundreds of zydeco bands continue the music traditions across the U.S. and in Europe, Japan, the UK and Australia. A precocious 7-year-old zydeco accordionist, Guyland Leday, was featured in an HBO documentary about music and young people.^[9]

In 2007, zydeco achieved a separate category in the Grammy awards, the Grammy Award for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album category.^[10]

More recent zydeco artists include Lil' Nate, Leon Chavis, Mo' Mojo and Kenne' Wayne. Wayne has fused zydeco with up tempo southern soul and smooth ballads to create a sound which he calls 'zydesoul,' while torchbearer Andre Thierry has kept the tradition alive on the West Coast.

Leading the world of traditional Zydeco today is the Dwayne Dopsie (son of Rockin' Dopsie) and his band, the Zydeco Hellraisers.^{[citation needed]} They were nominated for best Regional Roots Album in the 2017 Grammy Award's. Dwayne and his band travel the globe playing 250 plus shows a year, keeping true zydeco music alive.^{[citation needed]}

While zydeco is a genre that has become synonymous with the cultural and musical identity of Louisiana and an important part of the musical landscape of the United States, this southern black music tradition has also now achieved much wider appreciation. Because of the migration of the French-speaking blacks and multiracial Creoles, the mixing of Cajun and Creole musicians, and the warm embrace of people from outside these cultures, there are multiple hotbeds of zydeco: Louisiana, Texas, Oregon, California, and Europe as far north as Scandinavia. There are zydeco festivals throughout America and Europe. Zydeco music is performed at festivals, schools, performing art centers and large corporate events. It is performed for presidents and celebrities, heard on cinema soundtracks and used to advertise everything from vehicles to toothpaste to antacids, pharmaceuticals and candy bars. Rolling Stone, the Los Angeles Times, Time magazine among many others have featured it. It is played on radio stations around the world and on Internet radio.

Instruments[edit]

A zydeco musician wearing a vest frottoir.

The first zydeco vest frottoir (rubboard) was designed by Clifton Chenier, the 'King of Zydeco,' in 1946 while he and his brother, Cleveland, were working at an oil refinery in Port Arthur, Texas. The first zydeco rubboard made to Chenier's design was made at Chenier's request by their fellow Louisianan, Willie Landry, a master welder-fabricator, who was also working at the refinery. The zydeco rubboard, designed specifically for the genre solely as a percussion instrument, is in the permanent collection of the Smithsonian Institution.^[11]

Other instruments common in zydeco include the old world accordion which is found in folk and roots music globally, guitar, bass guitar, drums, Cajun fiddle, and occasionally horns, keyboards, Spoon (musical instrument), and Triangle (musical instrument).^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]

In popular culture[edit]

Zydeco music is featured in the video game The Sims: Unleashed^[17] when traveling to Old Town on the Shuttle Bus (while the game loads Old Town), during building mode in Old Town, as well as other scenarios. The songs are in Simlish, but certain Zydeco tracks such as 'Les Haricots Sont Pas Salés' are clearly recognizable. The theme of the game, with its new lots and music, is considered cajun or zydeco.

The Clash song 'Last Gang in Town', from their 1978 album Give 'Em Enough Rope, mentions the Zydeco genre.^{[citation needed]}

'Weird Al' Yankovic parodies the genre in 'My Baby's In Love With Eddie Vedder' from his 1999 album Running With Scissors.^[18]

References[edit]

^Sircely, Matt (2011). 'Cajun Fiddler Cedric Watson is Helping to Preserve Tradition'. Strings: 21–22.
^'Zydeco Music 101'. Accessed 16 April 2018.
^Lolordo, Ann (31 January 1993). 'An Evening In a Cajun Dance Hall: A Letter from Baton Rouge'. The Baltimore Sun'. Accessed 16 April 2018.
^Jacobson, Daniel. American Music in the 20th Century: III. Other Prominent Types of American Roots Music in the Early 1900s: Cajun Music. Western Michigan University, date unknown. p. 11. 'Music in the United States Before the Great Depression'. Accessed 16 April 2018.
^Tisserand, Michael (1998). The Kingdom of Zydeco. Arcade Publishing. pp. 11–20.
^Ancelet, Barry (1991). 'Cajun and Zydeco Music Traditions'. In Bulger, Peggy A. (ed.). Musical Roots of the South. Southern Arts Federation.
^Ancelet, Barry Jean (1988). Columbia College Chicago Center for Black Music Research (ed.). 'Zydeco/Zarico: Beans, Blues and Beyond'. Black Music Research Journal. University of Illinois Press. 8 (1): 33–49. JSTOR779502.
^Hebert, Tim (1997–2009). 'History of the Cajuns - Cajuns in the 18th Century'. Acadian-Cajun Genealogy & History. ACADIAN-CAJUN Genealogy & History. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
^'Big Sounds, All but Bursting Out of Small Packages'. The New York Times. 7 October 2006. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
^'Kanye West Leads 50th GRAMMY Nominees'. News. GRAMMY.com, The Official Site of the Grammy Awards. December 6, 2007. Archived from the original on December 27, 2007.
^'Frottoir History'. Key of Z Rubboards. 2002–2008. Retrieved March 20, 2014.
^Daniel., Kingman, (2015-01-01). American music : a panorama. Cengage Learning. p. 56. ISBN9781285446219. OCLC869837576.
^T., Broussard, Sherry. Louisiana's Zydeco. p. 7. ISBN9781439643532. OCLC884577399.
^Ben, Sandmel,; Rick, Olivier, (1999-01-01). Zydeco!. University Press of Mississippi. p. 22–23. ISBN9781578061167. OCLC493108712.
^1942-, Bogue, Barbara, (2006-01-01). James Lee Burke and the soul of Dave Robicheaux : a critical study of the crime fiction series. McFarland. p. 132. ISBN9780786426225. OCLC846091975.
^F., Barkley, Elizabeth (2007-01-01). Crossroads : the multicultural roots of America's popular music. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 159. ISBN9780131930735. OCLC62282643.
^'About the Band'. Zydeco Flames. Retrieved March 20, 2014. Other: Five Flames songs are featured in the computer reality game, 'The Sims Unleashed'
^''Weird Al' Yankovic Plays His Weirdest-Ever Indy Show'. Indianapolis Monthly. 2018-03-30. Retrieved 2019-02-26.

External links[edit]

Spitzer, Nicholas (Producer) (1986). Zydeco. Folkstreams.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zydeco.

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zydeco&oldid=908362004'

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Intersectionality, also called intersectional feminism, is a branch of feminism asserting how different aspects of social and political identity discrimination overlap ('intersect') with gender.^[1] It is a qualitative analytic framework that identifies how interlocking systems of power affect those who are most marginalized in society.^[2]^{[verification needed]} The term was coined by black feminist scholar Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw in 1989.^[3]^[4]^[5] There are various forms of social stratification, such as class, race, sexual orientation, age, religion, creed, disability and gender, which are included in the consideration of intersectional feminism and its social and cultural effects. The purpose of intersectionality is to identify that these forms of discrimination are related to one another, and take these relationships into account when working to promote social and political equity.^[1] While the theory began as an exploration of the oppression of women of color within society, today the analysis has expanded to include many more aspects of social identity. Intersectionality may also be related to the term triple oppression, which engages with similar themes. Critics have pointed out that intersectionality relies entirely on non-objective concepts such as 'systems of power' which themselves lack a material reality, and therefore empirical basis for study, making it an ideological set of ideas, and not a proper sociological concept.

2Feminist thought
3Key concepts
4In practice
5Criticism

Historical background[edit]

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Kimberlé Crenshaw – On Intersectionality via Southbank Centre on YouTube^[6]

The concept of intersectionality intended to illuminate dynamics that have often been overlooked by feminist movements and theory.^[7] As articulated by author bell hooks, the emergence of intersectionality 'challenged the notion that 'gender' was the primary factor determining a woman's fate'.^[8] The historical exclusion of black women from the feminist movement in the United States resulted in many black 19th and 20th century feminists, such as Anna Julia Cooper, challenging the exclusion. This movement disputed the ideas of earlier feminist movements – which were primarily led by white middle-class women – such as the idea that women were a homogenous category who shared the same life experiences.^[9] Recognizing that the forms of oppression experienced by white middle-class women were different from those experienced by black, poor, or disabled women, feminists began seeking to understand the ways in which gender, race, and class combine to 'determine the female destiny'.^[8]

Racial inequality was a factor that was largely ignored by first-wave feminism, which was primarily concerned with gaining political equality between men and women. Early women's rights movements often exclusively pertained to the membership, concerns, and struggles of white women alone.^[10] Second-wave feminism stemmed from Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique and worked to dismantle sexism relating to the perceived domestic purpose of women. While feminists during this time had success through the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title IX, and Roe v. Wade, they largely alienated black women from the platforms of the mainstream movement.^[11] However, third-wave feminism – which emerged shortly after the term 'intersectionality' was coined in the late 1980s – notes the lack of attention to race, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity in early feminist movements, and tries to provide a channel to address political and social disparities.^[12] Intersectionality recognizes these issues which were ignored by early social justice movements. Many recent academics such as Leslie McCall have argued that the introduction of the intersectionality theory was vital to sociology, and that before the development of the theory there was little research that specifically addressed the experiences of people who are subjected to multiple forms of oppression within society.^[13] An example of this is Iris Marion Young arguing that differences must be acknowledged in order to find unifying social justice issues that in effect create coalitions that aid in changing society for the better.^[14] More specifically, this relates to the ideals of the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW).^[15]

The term also has historical and theoretical links to the concept of 'simultaneity', which was advanced during the 1970s by members of the Combahee River Collective in Boston, Massachusetts.^[16] Simultaneity is explained as the simultaneous influences of race, class, gender, and sexuality, which informed the members lives and their resistance to oppression.^[17] Thus, the women of the Combahee River Collective advanced an understanding of African-American experiences that challenged analyses emerging from Black and male-centered social movements, as well as those from mainstream white, middle-class, heterosexual feminists.^[18]

Since the term was coined, many feminist scholars have emerged with historical support for the intersectional theory. These women include Beverly Guy-Sheftall and her fellow contributors to Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought, a collection of articles describing the multiple oppressions black women in America have experienced from the 1830s to contemporary times. Guy-Sheftall speaks about the constant premises that influence the lives of African American women, saying “black women experience a special kind of oppression and suffering in this country which is racist, sexist, and classist because of their dual race and gender identity and their limited access to economic resources.”^[19] Other writers and theorists were using intersectional analysis in their work before the term was coined. For example, Deborah K. King published the article “Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology” in 1988, just before Crenshaw coined the term intersectionality. In the article she addresses what soon became the foundation for intersectionality, saying, “Black women have long recognized the special circumstances of our lives in the United States: the commonalities that we share with all women, as well as the bonds that connect us to the men of our race.”^[20] Additionally, Gloria Wekker describes how Gloria Anzaldúa's work as a Chicana feminist theorist exemplifies how 'existent categories for identity are strikingly not dealt with in separate or mutually exclusive terms, but are always referred to in relation to one another'.^[21] Wekker also points to the words and activism of Sojourner Truth as an example of an intersectional approach to social justice.^[21] In her speech, “Ain’t I a Woman?,” Truth identifies the difference between the oppression of white and black women. She says that white women are often treated as emotional and delicate while black women are subjected to racist abuse and demeaned as a woman. However, this was largely dismissed and pushed down by white feminists who worried that this would distract from their goal of women's suffrage and instead focus attention on emancipation.^[22]

Feminist thought[edit]

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In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term 'intersectionality' in a paper as a way to help explain the oppression of African-American women. Crenshaw's then somewhat academic term is now at the forefront of national conversations about racial justice, identity politics, and policing—and over the years has helped shape legal discussions.^[3]^[4]^[5] She used the term in her crucial 1989 paper for the University of Chicago Legal Forum, 'Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.'^[23]^[24] In her work, Crenshaw discusses Black feminism, arguing that the experience of being a black woman cannot be understood in independent terms of either being black or a woman. Rather, it must include interactions between the two identities, which, she adds, should frequently reinforce one another.^[25]

In order to show that non-white women have a vastly different experience from white women due to their race and/or class and that their experiences are not easily voiced or pinpointed, Crenshaw explores two types of male violence against women: domestic violence and rape. Through her analysis of these two forms of male violence against women, Crenshaw says that the experiences of non-white women consist of a combination (or, intersection) of both racism and sexism.^[26] She says that because non-white women are present within discourses that have been designed to address either race or sex – but not both at the same time – non-white women are marginalized within both of these systems of oppression as a result.^[26]

In her work, Crenshaw identifies three aspects of intersectionality that affect the visibility of non-white women: structural intersectionality, political intersectionality, and representational intersectionality. Structural intersectionality deals with how non-white women experience domestic violence and rape in a manner qualitatively different than that of white women. Political intersectionality examines how laws and policies intended to increase equality have paradoxically decreased the visibility of violence against non-white women. Finally, representational intersectionality delves into how pop culture portrayals of non-white women can obscure their own authentic lived experiences.^[26]

The term gained prominence in the 1990s, particularly in the wake of the further development of Crenshaw's work in the writings of sociologist Patricia Hill Collins. Crenshaw's term, Collins says, replaced her own previous coinage 'black feminist thought', and 'increased the general applicability of her theory from African American women to all women'.^[27]^:61 Much like Crenshaw, Collins argues that cultural patterns of oppression are not only interrelated, but are bound together and influenced by the intersectional systems of society, such as race, gender, class, and ethnicity.^[28]^:42 Collins describes this as 'interlocking social institutions [that] have relied on multiple forms of segregation... to produce unjust results'.^[29]

Collins sought to create frameworks to think about intersectionality, rather than expanding on the theory itself. She identified three main branches of study within intersectionality. One branch deals with the background, ideas, issues, conflicts, and debates within intersectionality. Another branch seeks to apply intersectionality as an analytical strategy to various social institutions in order to examine how they might perpetuate social inequality. The final branch formulates intersectionality as a critical praxis to determine how social justice initiatives can use intersectionality to bring about social change.^[30]

The ideas behind intersectional feminism existed long before the term was coined. Sojourner Truth's 1851 'Ain't I a Woman?' speech, for example, exemplifies intersectionality, in which she spoke from her racialized position as a former slave to critique essentialist notions of femininity.^[31] Similarly, in her 1892 essay, 'The Colored Woman's Office', Anna Julia Cooper identifies black women as the most important actors in social change movements, because of their experience with multiple facets of oppression.^[32]

Though intersectionality began with the exploration of the interplay between gender and race, over time other identities and oppressions were added to the theory. For example, in 1981 Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa published the first edition of This Bridge Called My Back. This anthology explored how classifications of sexual orientation and class also mix with those of race and gender to create even more distinct political categories. Many black, Latina, and Asian writers featured in the collection stress how their sexuality interacts with their race and gender to inform their perspectives. Similarly, poor women of color detail how their socio-economic status adds a layer of nuance to their identities, ignored or misunderstood by middle-class white feminists.^[33]

According to black feminists and many white feminists, experiences of class, gender, and sexuality cannot be adequately understood unless the influence of racialization is carefully considered. This focus on racialization was highlighted many times by scholar and feminist bell hooks, specifically in her 1981 book Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism.^[34] Feminists argue that an understanding of intersectionality is a vital element of gaining political and social equality and improving our democratic system.^[35] Collins's theory represents the sociological crossroads between modern and post-modern feminist thought.^[28]

Marie-Claire Belleau argues for 'strategic intersectionality' in order to foster cooperation between feminisms of different ethnicities.^[36]^:51 She refers to different nat-cult (national-cultural) groups that produce unique types of feminisms. Using Québécois nat-cult as an example, Belleau says that many nat-cult groups contain infinite sub-identities within themselves, arguing that there are endless ways in which different feminisms can cooperate by using strategic intersectionality, and that these partnerships can help bridge gaps between 'dominant and marginal' groups.^[36]^:54 Belleau argues that, through strategic intersectionality, differences between nat-cult feminisms are neither essentialist nor universal, but should be understood as resulting from socio-cultural contexts. Furthermore, the performances of these nat-cult feminisms are also not essentialist. Instead, they are strategies.^[36]

Similarly, Intersectional theorists like Vrushali Patil argue that intersectionality ought to recognize transborder constructions of racial and cultural hierarchies. About the effect of the state on identity formation, Patil says: 'If we continue to neglect cross-border dynamics and fail to problematize the nation and its emergence via transnational processes, our analyses will remain tethered to the spatialities and temporalities of colonial modernity.'^[37]

Marxist feminist critical theory[edit]

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W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain certain aspects of black political economy. Collins writes: 'Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power.'^[28]^:44 Du Bois omitted gender from his theory and considered it more of a personal identity category.

Cheryl Townsend Gilkes expands on this by pointing out the value of centering on the experiences of black women. Joy James takes things one step further by 'using paradigms of intersectionality in interpreting social phenomena'. Collins later integrated these three views by examining a black political economy through the centering of black women's experiences and the use of a theoretical framework of intersectionality.^[28]^:44

Collins uses a Marxist feminist approach and applies her intersectional principles to what she calls the 'work/family nexus and black women's poverty'. In her 2000 article 'Black Political Economy' she describes how, in her view, the intersections of consumer racism, gender hierarchies, and disadvantages in the labor market can be centered on black women's unique experiences. Considering this from a historical perspective and examining interracial marriage laws and property inheritance laws creates what Collins terms a 'distinctive work/family nexus that in turn influences the overall patterns of black political economy'.^[28]^:45–46 For example, anti-miscegenation laws effectively suppressed the upward economic mobility of black women.

The intersectionality of race and gender has been shown to have a visible impact on the labor market. 'Sociological research clearly shows that accounting for education, experience, and skill does not fully explain significant differences in labor market outcomes.'^[38]^:506 The three main domains in which we see the impact of intersectionality are wages, discrimination, and domestic labor. Those who experience privilege within the social hierarchy in terms of race, gender and socio-economic status are less likely to receive lower wages, to be subjected to stereotypes and discriminated against, or to be hired for exploitative domestic positions. Studies of the labor market and intersectionality provide a better understanding of economic inequalities and the implications of the multidimensional impact of race and gender on social status within society.^[38]^:506–507

Key concepts[edit]

Interlocking matrix of oppression[edit]

Collins refers to the various intersections of social inequality as the matrix of domination. This is also known as 'vectors of oppression and privilege'.^[39]^:204 These terms refer to how differences among people (sexual orientation, class, race, age, etc.) serve as oppressive measures towards women and change the experience of living as a woman in society. Collins, Audre Lorde (in Sister Outsider), and bell hooks point towards either/or thinking as an influence on this oppression and as further intensifying these differences.^[40] Specifically, Collins refers to this as the construct of dichotomous oppositional difference. This construct is characterized by its focus on differences rather than similarities.^[41]^:S20 Lisa A. Flores suggests, when individuals live in the borders, they 'find themselves with a foot in both worlds.' The result is 'the sense of being neither' exclusively one identity nor another.^[42]

Standpoint epistemology and the outsider within[edit]

Both Collins and Dorothy Smith have been instrumental in providing a sociological definition of standpoint theory. A standpoint is an individual's unique world perspective. The theoretical basis of this approach views societal knowledge as being located within an individual's specific geographic location. In turn, knowledge becomes distinctly unique and subjective; it varies depending on the social conditions under which it was produced.^[43]^:392

The concept of the outsider within refers to a unique standpoint encompassing the self, family, and society.^[41]^:S14 This relates to the specific experiences to which people are subjected as they move from a common cultural world (i.e., family) to that of modern society.^[39]^:207 Therefore, even though a woman—especially a Black woman—may become influential in a particular field, she may feel as though she does not belong. Their personalities, behavior, and cultural being overshadow their value as an individual; thus, they become the outsider within.^[41]^:S14

Resisting oppression[edit]

Speaking from a critical standpoint, Collins points out that Brittan and Maynard say 'domination always involves the objectification of the dominated; all forms of oppression imply the devaluation of the subjectivity of the oppressed.'^[41]^:S18 She later notes that self-valuation and self-definition are two ways of resisting oppression. Practicing self-awareness helps to preserve the self-esteem of the group that is being oppressed and allow them to avoid any dehumanizing outside influences.

Marginalized groups often gain a status of being an 'other'.^[41]^:S18 In essence, you are 'an other' if you are different from what Audre Lorde calls the mythical norm. 'Others' are virtually anyone that differs from the societal schema of an average white male. Gloria Anzaldúa theorizes that the sociological term for this is 'othering', or specifically attempting to establish a person as unacceptable based on a certain criterion that fails to be met.^[39]^:205

In practice[edit]

Intersectionality can be applied to nearly all fields from politics,^[44]^[45] education^[13]^[32]^[46] healthcare,^[47]^[48] and employment, to economics.^[49] For example, within the institution of education, Sandra Jones' research on working class women in academia takes into consideration meritocracy within all social strata, but argues that it is complicated by race and the external forces that oppress.^[46] Additionally, people of color often experience differential treatment in the healthcare system. For example, in the period immediately after 9/11 researchers noted low birth weights and other poor birth outcomes among Muslim and Arab Americans, a result they connected to the increased racial and religious discrimination of the time.^[50] Some researchers have also argued that immigration policies can affect health outcomes through mechanisms such as stress, restrictions on access to health care, and the social determinants of health.^[48]

Additionally, applications with regard to property and wealth can be traced to the American historical narrative that is filled 'with tensions and struggles over property—in its various forms. From the removal of Native Americans (and later Japanese Americans) from the land, to military conquest of the Mexicans, to the construction of Africans as property, the ability to define, possess, and own property has been a central feature of power in America ... [and where] social benefits accrue largely to property owners'.^[49] One could apply the intersectionality framework analysis to various areas where race, class, gender, sexuality and ability are affected by policies, procedures, practices, and laws in 'context-specific inquiries, including, for example, analyzing the multiple ways that race and gender interact with class in the labor market; interrogating the ways that states constitute regulatory regimes of identity, reproduction, and family formation';^[51] and examining the inequities in 'the power relations [of the intersectionality] of whiteness ... [where] the denial of power and privilege ... of whiteness, and middle-classness', while not addressing 'the role of power it wields in social relations'.^[52]

Intersectionality in a global context[edit]

Over the last couple decades in the European Union, there has been discussion regarding the intersections of social classifications and the need to acknowledge their functions. Before Crenshaw coined her definition of intersectionality, there was debate on what these societal categories were, and how they played a role in the lives of many minorities. What was once a more cut and dried categorization between gender, race, and class has turned into a multidimensional intersection of 'race' including religion, sexuality, ethnicities, etc. In the EU and UK they refer to these intersections under the notion of multiple discrimination. The EU passed a non-discrimination law which addresses these multiple intersections; however, there is debate on whether the law is still proactively focusing on the proper inequalities.^[53] The European Union is not the only organization that is acknowledging this concept. People around the world are taking a new approach when identifying others identities as well as their own; although, there are still places that follow the traditional process of categorization as stated in the following quote. 'The impact of patriarchy and traditional assumptions about gender and families are evident in the lives of Chinese migrant workers (Chow, Tong), sex workers and their clients in South Korea (Shin), and Indian widows (Chauhan), but also Ukrainian migrants (Amelina) and Australian men of the new global middle class (Connell).'^[54] This text suggests that there are many more intersections of discrimination for people around the globe, than Crenshaw originally accounted for in her definition.

For example, Chandra Mohanty discusses alliances between women throughout the world as intersectionality in a global context. She rejects western feminist theory, especially when it writes about global women of color and generally associated “third world women.” She argues that “third world women” are often thought of as a homogenous entity, when, in fact, their experience of oppression is informed by their geography, history, and culture. When western feminists write about women in the global South in this way, they dismiss the inherent intersecting identities that are present in the dynamic of feminism in the global South. Mohanty questions the performance of intersectionality and relationality of power structures within the US and colonialism and how to work across identities with this history of colonial power structures.^[55] This lack of homogeneity and intersecting identities can be seen through Feminism in India which goes over how women in India practice feminism within social structures and continuing effects of colonization that differ from that of Western and other non-Western countries.

This is elaborated on by Christine Bose who discusses a global use of intersectionality which works to remove associations of specific inequalities with specific institutions, while showing that these systems generate intersectional effects. She uses this approach to develop a framework that can analyze gender inequalities across different nations and differentiates this from an approach (the one that Mohanty was referring to) which, one, paints national-level inequalities as the same and, two, differentiates only between the global North and South. This is manifested through the intersection of global dynamics like economics, migration, or violence, with regional dynamics, like histories of the nation or gendered inequalities in education and property education.^[56]

Transnational intersectionality[edit]

Third World feminists and transnational feminists criticize intersectionality as a concept emanating from WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic)^[57] societies that unduly universalizes women's experiences.^[58]^[59] Third world feminists have worked to revise Western conceptualizations of intersectionality that assume all women experience the same type of gender and racial oppression.^[58]^[60] Shelly Grabe coined the term 'transnational intersectionality' to represent a more comprehensive conceptualization of intersectionality. Grabe wrote, 'Transnational intersectionality places importance on the intersections among gender, ethnicity, sexuality, economic exploitation, and other social hierarchies in the context of empire building or imperialist policies characterized by historical and emergent global capitalism.'^[61] Both Third World and transnational feminists advocate attending to 'complex and intersecting oppressions and multiple forms of resistance'.^[58]^[60]

Social work[edit]

In the field of social work, proponents of intersectionality hold that unless service providers take intersectionality into account, they will be of less use for various segments of the population, such as those reporting domestic violence or disabled victims of abuse. According to intersectional theory, the practice of domestic violence counselors in the United States urging all women to report their abusers to police is of little use to women of color due to the history of racially motivated police brutality, and those counselors should adapt their counseling for women of color.^[62]

Women with disabilities encounter more frequent domestic abuse with a greater number of abusers. Health care workers and personal care attendants perpetrate abuse in these circumstances, and women with disabilities have fewer options for escaping the abusive situation.^[63] There is a 'silence' principle concerning the intersectionality of women and disability, which maintains an overall social denial of the prevalence of abuse among the disabled and leads to this abuse being frequently ignored when encountered.^[64] A paradox is presented by the overprotection of people with disabilities combined with the expectations of promiscuous behavior of disabled women.^[63]^[64] This leads to limited autonomy and social isolation of disabled individuals, which place women with disabilities in situations where further or more frequent abuse can occur.^[63]

Criticism[edit]

Methods and ideology[edit]

According to political theorist Rebecca Reilly-Cooper intersectionality relies heavily on standpoint theory, which has its own set of criticisms. Intersectionality posits that an oppressed person is often the best person to judge their experience of oppression; however, this can create paradoxes when people who are similarly oppressed have different interpretations of similar events. Such paradoxes make it very difficult to synthesize a common actionable cause based on subjective testimony alone.^[65] Other narratives, especially those based on multiple intersections of oppression, are more complex.^[66] Davis (2008) asserts that intersectionality is ambiguous and open-ended, and that its 'lack of clear-cut definition or even specific parameters has enabled it to be drawn upon in nearly any context of inquiry'.^[67]

Rekia Jibrin and Sara Salem argue that intersectional theory creates a unified idea of anti-oppression politics that requires a lot out of its adherents, often more than can reasonably be expected, creating difficulties achieving praxis. They also say that intersectional philosophy encourages a focus on the issues inside the group instead of on society at large, and that intersectionality is 'a call to complexity and to abandon oversimplification... this has the parallel effect of emphasizing 'internal differences' over hegemonic structures.'^[68]^[a]

Writing in the New Statesman, Helen Lewis adds that in emphasizing internal differences over hegemonic structures, and having complex and at times contradictory recommendations, it can create paralysis because it is not very accessible.^[69]

The moral psychologistJonathan Haidt, in a speech at the American conservative think tank Manhattan Institute, criticized the theory by saying:

[In intersectionality] the binary dimensions of oppression are said to be interlocking and overlapping. America is said to be one giant matrix of oppression, and its victims cannot fight their battles separately. They must all come together to fight their common enemy, the group that sits at the top of the pyramid of oppression: the straight, white, cis-gendered, able-bodied Christian or Jewish or possibly atheist male. This is why a perceived slight against one victim group calls forth protest from all victim groups. This is why so many campus groups now align against Israel. Intersectionality is like NATO for social-justice activists.^[70]^{[non-primary source needed]}

Barbara Tomlinson is employed at the Department of Women's Studies at UC Santa Barbara and has been critical of the applications of intersectional theory. She has identified several ways in which the conventional theory has been destructive to the movement. She asserts that the common practice of using intersectionality to attack other ways of feminist thinking and the tendency of academics to critique intersectionality instead of using intersectionality as a tool to critique other conventional ways of thinking has been a misuse of the ideas it stands for. Tomlinson argues that in order to use intersectional theory correctly, intersectional feminists must not only consider the arguments but the tradition and mediums through which these arguments are made, Conventional academics are likely to favor writings by authors or publications with prior established credibility instead of looking at the quality of each piece individually, contributing to negative stereotypes associated with both feminism and intersectionality by having weaker arguments in defense of feminism and intersectionality become prominent based on renown. She goes on to argue that this allows critics of intersectionality to attack these weaker arguments, '[reducing] intersectionality's radical critique of power to desires for identity and inclusion, and offer a deradicalized intersectionality as an asset for dominant disciplinary discourses'.^[71]

Sharon Goldman of the Israel-America Studies Program at Shalem College also criticized intersectionality on the basis of its being too simplistic. Goldman stipulates that many of the people championed by intersectionality truly are victims of oppression, but her reading of the ideology is that it favors the powerless over the powerful regardless of context. Any group that overcomes adversity, achieves independence, or defends itself successfully is seen as 'corrupt' or 'imperialist' by intersectionality adherents. The examples Goldman gives are American Jews who, inspired by the abject victimhood of the Holocaust, engaged in politics to successfully advance their ideas into the American mainstream. American Jews are not given the benefit of the doubt by intersectionality adherents because they proudly reject victimization.^[72]

Deist Roots Of America

Psychology[edit]

Researchers in psychology have incorporated intersection effects since the 1950s^{[example needed]}. These intersection effects were based on studying the lenses of biases, heuristics, stereotypes, and judgments. Psychologists have extended research in psychological biases to the areas of cognitive and motivational psychology. What is found, is that every human mind has its own biases in judgement and decision-making that tend to preserve the status-quo by avoiding change and attention to ideas that exist outside ones personal realm of perception.^[73] Psychological interaction effects span a range of variables, although person by situation effects are the most examined category. As a result, psychologists do not construe the interaction effect of demographics such as gender and race as either more noteworthy or less noteworthy than any other interaction effect. In addition, oppression can be regarded as a subjective construct when viewed as an absolute hierarchy; even if an objective definition of oppression were reached, person-by-situation effects would make it difficult to deem certain persons or categories of persons as uniformly oppressed. For instance, black men are stereotypically perceived as violent, which may be a disadvantage in police interactions, but also as physically attractive,^[74]^[75] which may be advantageous in romantic situations.^[76] Psychologists have extended research of psychological biases to a cognitive and

Psychological studies have shown that the effect of multiplying 'oppressed' identities is not necessarily additive, but rather interactive in complex ways. For instance, black gay men may be more positively evaluated than black heterosexual men, because the 'feminine' aspects of gay stereotypes temper the hypermasculine and aggressive aspect of black stereotypes.^[76]^[77]

Alan Dershowitz, scholar of United States constitutional law and criminal law, answering a question on the criticism of Israel by intersectional movements he stated that the concept of intersectionality is an oversimplification of reality that makes LGBT activists stand in solidarity with advocates of Sharia, even though Islamic law denies the rights of the former. He feels that identity politics does not evaluate ideas or individuals on the basis of the quality of their character. Dershowitz argues that in academia, intersectionality is taught with a large influence from antisemitism. He states that Jews are actually more liberal and supportive of equal rights than many other religious sects.^[78]

Writer and political pro-Israel activist Chloé Valdary considers intersectionality 'a rigid system for determining who is virtuous and who is not, based on traits like skin color, gender, and financial status'. Valdary also states:

Intersectionality's greatest flaw is in reducing human beings to political abstractions, which is never a tendency that turns out well—in part because it so severely flattens our complex human experience, and therefore fails to adequately describe reality. As it turns out, one can be personally successful and still come from a historically oppressed community—or vice versa. The human experience is complex and multifaceted and deeper than the superficial ways in which intersectionalists describe it.^[79]